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In the 19th century, the idea of "survival of the fittest" revealed a methodological divide between Spencer and Darwin. Spencer applied natural selection to society in a deductive way, justifying inequality as natural. Darwin, by contrast, approached evolution inductively, through observation, and remained cautious about social implications.

Marx respected Darwin’s model of natural development but criticized Spencer’s ideology as a justification of capitalism. For Marx, the key was uncovering inner contradictions driving change—Darwin’s theory offered a useful analogy, while Spencer’s logic masked social injustice.